Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Plastic pollution is growing relentlessly as waste management and recycling fall short, says OECD
22/02/2022 - The world is producing twice as much plastic waste as two decades ago, with the bulk of it ending up in landfill, incinerated or leaking into the environment, and only 9% successfully recycled, according to a new OECD report.
Ahead of UN talks on international action to reduce plastic waste, the OECD’s first Global Plastic Outlook shows that as rising populations and incomes drive a relentless increase in the amount of plastic being used and thrown away, policies to curb its leakage into the environment are falling short.
Almost half of all plastic waste is generated in OECD countries, according to the Outlook. Plastic waste generated annually per person varies from 221 kg in the United States and 114 kg in European OECD countries to 69 kg, on average, for Japan and Korea. Most plastic pollution comes from inadequate collection and disposal of larger plastic debris known as macroplastics, but leakage of microplastics (synthetic polymers smaller than 5 mm in diameter) from things like industrial plastic pellets, synthetic textiles, road markings and tire wear are also a serious concern.
OECD countries are behind 14% of overall plastic leakage. Within that, OECD countries account for 11% of macroplastics leakage and 35% of microplastics leakage. The Outlook notes that international co-operation on reducing plastic pollution should include supporting lower-income countries in developing better waste management infrastructure to reduce their plastic leakage.
The report finds that the COVID-19 crisis led to a 2.2% decrease in plastics use in 2020 as economic activity slowed, but a rise in littering, food takeaway packaging and plastic medical equipment such as masks has driven up littering. As economic activity resumed in 2021, plastics consumption has also rebounded.
Reducing pollution from plastics will require action, and international co-operation, to reduce plastic production, including through innovation, better product design and developing environmentally friendly alternatives, as well as efforts to improve waste management and increase recycling.
Bans and taxes on single-use plastics exist in more than 120 countries but are not doing enough to reduce overall pollution. Most regulations are limited to items like plastic bags, which make up a tiny share of plastic waste, and are more effective at reducing littering than curbing plastics consumption. Landfill and incineration taxes that incentivise recycling only exist in a minority of countries. The Outlook calls for greater use of instruments such as Extended Producer Responsibility schemes for packaging and durables, landfill taxes, deposit-refund and Pay-as-You-Throw systems.
Most plastics in use today are virgin – or primary – plastics, made from crude oil or gas. Global production of plastics from recycled – or secondary – plastics has more than quadrupled from 6.8 million tonnes (Mt) in 2000 to 29.1 Mt in 2019, but this is still only 6% of the size of total plastics production. More needs to be done to create a separate and well-functioning market for recycled plastics, which are still viewed as substitutes for virgin plastic. Setting recycled content targets and investing in improved recycling technologies could help to make secondary markets more competitive and profitable.
Some key findings from the Outlook:
- Plastic consumption has quadrupled over the past 30 years, driven by growth in emerging markets. Global plastics production doubled from 2000 to 2019 to reach 460 million tonnes. Plastics account for 3.4% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
- Global plastic waste generation more than doubled from 2000 to 2019 to 353 million tonnes. Nearly two-thirds of plastic waste comes from plastics with lifetimes of under five years, with 40% coming from packaging, 12% from consumer goods and 11% from clothing and textiles.
- Only 9% of plastic waste is recycled (15% is collected for recycling but 40% of that is disposed of as residues). Another 19% is incinerated, 50% ends up in landfill and 22% evades waste management systems and goes into uncontrolled dumpsites, is burned in open pits or ends up in terrestrial or aquatic environments, especially in poorer countries.
- In 2019, 6.1 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic waste leaked into aquatic environments and 1.7 Mt flowed into oceans. There is now an estimated 30 Mt of plastic waste in seas and oceans, and a further 109 Mt has accumulated in rivers. The build-up of plastics in rivers implies that leakage into the ocean will continue for decades to come, even if mismanaged plastic waste could be significantly reduced.
- Considering global value chains and trade in plastics, aligning design approaches and the regulation of chemicals will be key to improving the circularity of plastics. An international approach to waste management should lead to all available sources of financing, including development aid, being mobilised to help low and middle-income countries meet estimated costs of EUR 25 billion a year to improve waste management infrastructure.
Addressing the issue of extreme heat
Addressing the issue of extreme heat which has reached its highest recorded temperature last July 2023 is of utmost importance to mitigate the impacts of Anthropogenic Climate Change. While there is no single solution to completely solve the problem, a combination of strategies can help us adapt to and mitigate the effects of extreme heat. Here are some recommendations:
- Renewable Energy Transition: Accelerate the global transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power. This will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the primary driver of climate change, and help stabilize the climate.
- Energy Efficiency: Improve energy efficiency in buildings, industries, and transportation. This involves implementing energy-saving technologies, insulation, smart appliances, and efficient urban planning to reduce energy demand and associated heat emissions.
- Reforestation and Afforestation: Increase efforts to plant and protect forests, which act as carbon sinks and help regulate local temperatures by providing shade and evapotranspiration. Encourage afforestation in urban areas to create green spaces that mitigate the urban heat island effect.
- Sustainable Agriculture: Promote sustainable agricultural practices to reduce emissions from livestock and rice paddies. Implement climate-smart techniques to adapt crops to changing climate conditions and minimize water usage.
- Carbon Pricing and Regulation: Implement carbon pricing mechanisms and strengthen regulations on greenhouse gas emissions to create economic incentives for industries to reduce their carbon footprint.
- Adaptation Measures: Develop and implement heat action plans in cities, focusing on vulnerable populations to cope with extreme heat events. This includes creating cooling centres, early warning systems, and public awareness campaigns.
- Water Management: Improve water management strategies to cope with droughts and heat waves. Enhance water conservation, recycle water, and implement sustainable irrigation practices in agriculture.
- Urban Heat Island Mitigation: Utilize reflective materials for pavements and roofs to reduce urban heat absorption, along with incorporating green infrastructure, such as green roofs and vertical gardens.
- Education and Awareness: Increase public awareness about the impacts of extreme heat and climate change, promoting individual actions like reducing energy consumption, supporting sustainable practices, and advocating for climate policies. The most important, elect public officials who are concerned on the environment and climate change.
- International Cooperation: Encourage global collaboration among nations to set ambitious emission reduction targets, share best practices, and provide assistance to vulnerable regions impacted by extreme heat.
It's important to note that these recommendations require concerted efforts from governments, businesses, communities, and individuals worldwide. The urgency of addressing extreme heat and climate change calls for immediate action and a commitment to sustainability and environmental stewardship.
By: Ernesto Forcadilla
Chief Operating Officer
Storing and Transporting Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a promising clean energy carrier due to its high energy content and potential for low emissions when used in fuel cells, storing and transporting it over long distances poses significant challenges. Some of the main reasons why it is difficult are as follows:
- Low density and high volume: Hydrogen has a very low density, which means it occupies a large volume compared to other conventional fuels. To store a significant amount of hydrogen, either in gaseous or liquid form, large and bulky containers are required, making it impractical for long-distance transport.
- Leakage and embrittlement: Hydrogen molecules are small and can penetrate most materials, leading to leakage issues in storage and transportation systems. It can also embrittle metals, which poses a safety concern when dealing with high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks and pipelines.
- Energy-intensive compression and and liquefaction: To increase the energy density and facilitate transportation, hydrogen must be compressed or liquefied. Both processes require a considerable amount of energy, leading to efficiency losses and potentially higher costs.
- Infrastructure development: To transport hydrogen over long distances, a dedicated and extensive infrastructure is needed, including pipelines, filling stations, and storage facilities. Establishing such an infrastructure is costly and time-consuming, hindering the widespread adoption of hydrogen as an energy carrier.
- Safety concerns: Hydrogen has a wide flammability range, and any accidental release could lead to hazardous situations. Ensuring the safe storage, handling, and transportation of hydrogen requires robust safety measures and additional investments.
- Material compatibility: Hydrogen's high reactivity makes it challenging to find materials that can withstand exposure to hydrogen over extended periods without degradation. Selecting suitable materials for long-term storage and transport systems is crucial to avoid safety risks and maintain system integrity.
- Cryogenic challenges: Liquid hydrogen needs to be stored and transported at extremely low temperatures (around -253°C or 20 K). Handling cryogenic temperatures adds complexity to the design and operation of storage and transport systems.
- Energy loss during transport: Even with the best infrastructure, there will be unavoidable losses during the transportation of hydrogen, especially when using compression or liquefaction methods. These energy losses further reduce the overall efficiency of hydrogen as an energy carrier.
Despite these challenges, there are ongoing research and development at Triton Hydrogen Corporation https://tritonhydrogen.com/ in materials science, infrastructure design, and hydrogen technologies aim to overcome these obstacles and make hydrogen a viable option for long-distance transport in the future. Additionally, advancement in alternative storage methods, such as solid-state hydrogen storage and chemical hydrogen storage, are being explored by our scientists and engineers to address some of the current limitations
By: Ernesto Forcadilla
Chief Operating Officer
MACROPLASTICS, MICROPLASTICS, and MICROBEADS
Plastic is one material category associated with significant life-cycle Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions because the majority of plastics in current use are sourced from fossil fuels, and the production is energy-intensive. Plastics show the strongest production growth of all bulk materials and are already responsible for 4.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. If no new policies are implemented, there is a projected doubling of global plastic demand by 2050 and more than a tripling by 2100, with an almost equivalent increase in CO2 emissions.
According to OECD, inadequate disposal of plastic waste is the main driver of global plastic leakage, but microplastics, littering and losses from marine activities are also key concerns. Plastic pollution has now been documented in all the major ocean basins, beaches, rivers, lakes, terrestrial environments and even in remote locations such as the Arctic and Antarctic. Estimated global leakage to the environment (terrestrial and aquatic) was 22 Mt in 2019. This value is projected to double, reaching 44 Mt by 2060.
Plastic is a material associated with various Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions along the life cycles of different products. In 2019, plastics generated 1.8 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – 3.4% of global emissions – with 90% of these emissions coming from their production and conversion from fossil fuels. By 2060, emissions from the plastics lifecycle are set to more than double, reaching 4.3 billion tonnes of GHG emissions. Many economies have adopted or planned for strategies to reduce, reuse, and recycle plastic goods and materials.
Climate change advocates are calling for a complete elimination of plastics because of macroplastics and microplastics leakage in the environment. It should be noted that plastic is a complex and versatile material that plays a significant role in various industries. Despite the growing concerns about climate change, there are several reasons why plastic cannot be easily eliminated from the economy without damaging it:
1. Versatility and Performance: Plastic materials are known for their wide range of properties, including flexibility, durability, lightweight nature, and resistance to chemicals and corrosion. These characteristics make plastics suitable for various applications, such as packaging, construction, automotive, electronics, and medical devices. Finding alternative materials that can replicate the same performance characteristics while being environmentally friendly is a significant challenge.
2. Cost and Economics: Plastic production is relatively cost-effective compared to many alternatives. Developing and implementing new materials with similar properties might involve higher production costs, research and development expenses, and potential changes to manufacturing processes. Manufacturers and industries are often driven by economic considerations, making the adoption of alternative materials less attractive from a financial standpoint.
3. Infrastructure and Supply Chain: The global economy has been built around plastic production and usage for decades. Infrastructure, machinery, and supply chains are optimized for plastic manufacturing and processing. Shifting away from plastics would require significant investments in new infrastructure, retooling of existing facilities, and changes in distribution networks, which can be logistically challenging and time-consuming.
4. Consumer Demand and Lifestyle: Plastics have become an integral part of modern lifestyles due to their convenience and functionality. Products like single-use packaging, medical equipment, and electronic devices rely heavily on plastic components. Shifting consumer behaviours and preferences toward more sustainable options can take time and necessitate cultural shifts.
5. Lack of Suitable Alternatives: While efforts are on-going to develop biodegradable plastics and other sustainable materials, finding alternatives that can match the wide array of applications that plastics serve remains a significant obstacle. Biodegradable plastics, for example, might not have the same level of durability required for certain applications.
6. Regulatory and Policy Challenges: Regulations and policies related to plastic use and disposal can vary widely across different regions and countries. Implementing consistent and effective regulations to reduce plastic usage and promote alternatives requires coordination on a global scale.
7. Research and Development: The development of new materials with the desired properties while being environmentally friendly requires extensive research and development efforts. Scientists and engineers need time to identify and refine suitable alternatives that can be scaled up for industrial applications.
While there is growing awareness of the environmental impact of plastic and the urgent need to address climate change, eliminating plastic from the industrial economy is a complex challenge that involves a balance between environmental concerns, economic considerations, technological innovation, and shifts in consumer behaviour. It is also very important to know the history of macroplastics and microplastics leakage in the environment:
1. Pre-Plastic Era: Before the widespread use of plastics, human activities generated waste primarily from natural materials that were biodegradable. Chemist and inventors were already making household object such as combs from a brittle, early form of plastic, first called Parkesine in the 19thcentury. It was later renamed celluloid, after the plant cellulose from which it was made. Pollution from non-organic sources was limited, and ecosystems had time to naturally break down waste.
2. Plastic Revolution (Mid-20th Century): The modern age of plastic began in the US with the invention of Bakelite in 1907. This material is fully synthetic that used phenol, a chemical left over from the process of turning crude oil or coal into petrol. The mid-20th century marked the beginning of the plastic revolution, with plastics becoming an integral part of modern life due to their versatility, durability, and affordability. Synthetic polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene were developed and rapidly adopted in various industries, leading to a surge in plastic production. Research started by Wallace Carothers and co-workers at DuPont in the 1920s and 1930seventually led to the discovery of the families of condensation polymers known as polyamides and polyesters.
3. Plastic Waste Escalation (Mid-20th Century): The convenience of plastics led to an increase in production, consumption, and disposal. However, the majority of plastics are non-biodegradable, leading to accumulation in landfills and the environment. As of the end of 2015, a staggering 55% of all plastic products end up in landfills. This corresponds to about 4600 million tons of accumulated plastic waste over the years.
4. Macroplastics Pollution (Late 20th Century): As plastic consumption soared, inadequately managed waste started to find its way into natural ecosystems. Rivers, oceans, and coastal areas began to see the accumulation of larger plastic items such as bottles, bags, and packaging materials. More than 171 trillion pieces of plastic are now estimated to be floating in the world’s oceans, according to scientists. The concentration of plastics in the oceans has increased from 16 trillion pieces in 2002 and it could nearly triple by 2040 if no action taken, scientists warn. The visible impacts of macroplastic pollution became a growing concern.
5. Discovery of Microplastics (Early 21st Century): In the early 2000s, scientists began to uncover the existence of microplastics, which are tiny plastic particles measuring less than 5 millimeters in size. These microplastics can originate from the breakdown of larger plastic items, as well as from microbeads used in personal care products, textiles, and other sources. The term “microplastics” was introduced in 2004 by Professor Richard Thompson, a marine biologist at the University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom.
6. Microplastics' Ubiquity (Mid-21st Century): Research indicated that microplastics were not only accumulating in marine environments but were also found in freshwater systems, soils, and even the air. These particles were being ingested by aquatic and terrestrial organisms raising concerns about potential ecological and health impacts. The small size of microplastics made them challenging to remove and study effectively. In 2014, it was estimated that there are between 15 and 51 trillion individual pieces of microplastic in the world's oceans, which was estimated to weigh between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons. Two papers published in 2019 suggested that tiny plastic particles and fibres found in remote parts of the French Pyrenees and in snow from the Fram Strait (which lies between Greenland and Svalbard) had been transported there from urban areas via the atmosphere.
7. Understanding Sources and Pathways: Scientists began investigating the sources and pathways of macroplastics and microplastics. Ocean currents, wind, and human activities were identified as major contributors to the dispersion of plastics. Urban runoff, industrial processes, and inadequate waste management systems were highlighted as sources of plastic leakage.
8. Impact on Ecosystems: Over time, evidence grew regarding the detrimental effects of plastic pollution on marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Ingestion of plastics by marine animals, entanglement of wildlife in macroplastics, and the potential transfer of microplastics up the food chain raised alarm bells among researchers and environmentalists. In 2022, microplastic pollution has been detected in human blood for the first in the study of blood samples from 22 anonymous donors by Prof. Dick Vethaak at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands.
9. Global Awareness and Initiatives: As public awareness of plastic pollution increased, governments, organizations, and individuals began taking action to mitigate the issue. Bans on single-use plastics, efforts to improve waste management infrastructure, and campaigns to reduce plastic consumption gained momentum.
10.On-going Research and Solutions (Present): The scientific community continues to study the impacts of macroplastics and microplastics, focusing on their environmental distribution, biological effects, and potential solutions. Innovations such as biodegradable plastics, improved recycling technologies, and sustainable materials aim to minimize plastic leakage into the environment is part of Triton Hydrogen Corporation’s research and development.
In summary, the history of macroplastics and microplastics leakage in the environment reflects the rapid proliferation of plastics and their subsequent impact on ecosystems. Increased awareness, research, and global cooperation are essential to addressing the challenges posed by plastic pollution and finding sustainable solutions for a plastic-free future. Below is the overview of the types and sources of macroplastics and microplastics leakages from the Data Group of Triton Hydrogen Corporation https://tritonhydrogen.com/
Types of Plastic Pollution:
1. Macroplastics: These are relatively larger plastic items that are visible to the naked eye. Examples include plastic bottles, bags, packaging materials, fishing gear, and larger plastic debris.
2. Microplastics: Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that can be further categorized based on their size:
o Primary Microplastics: These are particles that are intentionally produced at small sizes, such as microbeads in personal care products or microfibers from textiles.
o Secondary Microplastics: These are smaller fragments resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic items due to weathering, UV exposure, and mechanical processes.
Sources of Plastic Pollution
1. Land-Based Sources:
o Littering: Improper disposal of plastic waste, such as tossing items on the ground or into water bodies, contributes to macroplastics pollution.
o Poor Waste Management: Inadequate waste collection and recycling infrastructure can result in plastic waste escaping into the environment.
o Stormwater Runoff: Rainwater can carry plastic litter from streets and urban areas into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
2. Ocean-Based Sources:
o Marine Debris: Fishing gear, lost cargo, and shipping-related items are major sources of macroplastics in oceans.
3. Mismanaged Waste: Coastal areas with inadequate waste management systems can experience plastic pollution from both land and sea.
· Microplastics Sources:
- Synthetic Textiles: Washing synthetic clothing releases microfibers into wastewater, which can eventually reach aquatic environments.
- Tire Wear: Vehicle tire abrasion generates microplastic particles that can be washed into water bodies.
- Personal Care Products: Microbeads used in cosmetics and personal care products can contribute to microplastics in aquatic ecosystems. Microbeads are defined as plastic microbeads that are ≤ 5 mm in size and are used in many products, including toiletries such as bath and body products, skin cleansers and toothpaste.
- Industrial Processes: Microplastics can be generated during manufacturing processes and released into the environment.
- Breakdown of Larger Plastics: Over time, larger plastics can fragment into microplastics due to weathering and degradation.
· Atmospheric Deposition:
- Airborne Microplastics: Studies have shown that microplastics can become airborne and settle in remote areas, possibly due to the fragmentation of larger plastic items and atmospheric transport.
· Wastewater Treatment Plants:
- Effluent Discharge: Wastewater treatment plants may not effectively capture all microplastics, allowing them to enter rivers and oceans through treated water discharge.
It's important to note that addressing plastic pollution requires a multi-pronged approach involving policy changes from world governments, improved waste management systems, public awareness campaigns and sustainable product design from the plastic industry. New research and data continue to emerge, shaping our understanding of the sources and impacts of plastic pollution.